Background

The powerful 12^th-century resurgence that was prompted by a series of social, political and religious changes, with its roots in the cultural renaissance that swept Europe under Charlemagne, led to a watershed in the intellectual life of Western Europe. The new order was enhanced in large measure by the translation of numerous works of classical antiquity into Latin via Arabic, and also by the translation of texts by Muslim Arab scholars. Their most immediate impact was felt in Italy and…