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(a.) (sometimes also pronounced lifām ), the mouth-veil, is a piece of material with which the Bedouins concealed the lower part of the face, the mouth and sometimes also part of the nose (see the commentary on al-Ḥarīrī, ed. de Sacy, Paris 1821, 374, 2). According to the LA, lifām is a mouth-veil which also covers the nose top ( arnabat al-anf) and is worn by women. It served the practical purpose of protecting the organs of respiration from heat and cold as well as against the penetration of dust (cf. D̲h̲u ’l-Rumma, no. 5, 43, also no. 39, 24 and 73, 1…

, an Ottoman poet and Ḥurūfī [see Ḥurūfiyya ]. Of Refīʿī’s life we only have a few hints from himself; the Ottoman biographers and historians do not seem to mention him at all. He himself describes how in his youth he studied many branches of knowledge but did not know what he should believe, and how sometimes he turned to the Sunna, sometimes to philosophy and sometimes to materialism. He often travelled a great distance to visit a particular scholar but always was disappointed. The poet Nesīmī [ q.v.] was the first to teach him the grace of God and the truth, and ordered him to t…

(a.), crown, a Persian loanword in Arabic going back to the Old Persian * tag ; cf. Armenian tʿag , Aramaic tāḡā . From it are formed in Arabic the broken plural tīd̲j̲ān and the corresponding verb t-w-d̲j̲ , forms II “to crown”, V “to be crowned”, and tāʾid̲j̲ , “crowned” (Horn, Grundriss der neupersischen Etymologie , Strassburg 1893, 81; Siddiqi, Studien über die persischen Fremdwörter im klassischen Arabisch , Göttingen 1919, 74, 84, Fraenkel, Die aramäischen Fremdwörter im Arabischen , Leiden 1886, 62). Like the name, the object itself comes from …

(a.), originally “obliterating, covering”, then, “concealingbenefits received” = “ungrateful”; this meaning is found even in the old Arab poetry and in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra XXVI, 18. In the Ḳurʾān the word is used with reference to God: “concealing God’s blessings” = “ungrateful to God”, see Sūra XVI, 57 and XXX, 33: “That they are ungrateful for our gifts”; cf. also Sūra XVI, 85. The next development— probably under the influence of the Syriac and Aramaic where the corresponding development took pl…

, Ottoman Turkish historian. All that we know of his life has to be gleaned from his works. He was born in 1939/1532, for he tells us that at the accession of Sultan Murād III, i.e. in 982/1574, he was 43. At the early age of eleven he took part in the campaign of 950/1543, along with his elder brother Perwāne Ag̲h̲a, who at that time was Ḳapud̲j̲i̊ Bas̲h̲i̊ , to the Sand̲j̲aḳ Beg of Lepanto, Yaḥyā Pas̲h̲a-Og̲h̲lu Aḥmad Beg. When the latter, after the capture of Stuhlweissenburg, was appointed Sand̲j̲aḳ Beg there, the brothers seemed to have remained in his service, probably till 952/…

, Turkish writer, b. 1864 in Sari̊güzel or Sari̊gez, a quarter of Fātiḥ, Istanbul, d. 21 Sept. 1932 in the island of Heybeliada and buried there. In early life he lost his father Bahā al-Dīn, who belonged to the family of Mentes̲h̲-og̲h̲lu from Cyprus, and was brought up by his mother. ¶ From 1292/1875 to 1300/1882-3 he attended the school Dār ül-S̲h̲afaḳa in Istanbul, where he was attracted to art and literature and decided to become a writer; and to this profession (or, as he himself calls it, “the Sublime Porte Road”, Bāb-i ʿĀlī Ḏj̲addesi ) he remained faithful th…

, Turkish “the man with the Ḳavuḳ ”, a character of the Turkish Orta oyunu theatre. Turkish ḳavuḳ indicates a rather high, variously-shaped cap, with a headband, ṣari̊ḳ , wound round it (Ağakay, Türkçe sözlük: sarık sarılan başlık ). Such caps of varying shape and colour according to rank were worn by officers of the Janissaries (cf. Maḥmūd S̲h̲ewket, ʿOt̲h̲mānli̊ tes̲h̲kīlāt ve ḳiyāfet-i ʿaskeriyyesi , ¶ Istanbul 1325, i, 29 ff.). Other professions too had their own special ḳavuḳ, there were wezīr , mollā , kātib and pas̲h̲ali̊ḳ ḳavug̲h̲u , some with specific names: kallāvī , k̲h̲orasānī …

(a.) means literally “spread out” (as in Ḳurʾān, XVII, 14, and LII,3: opposite, maṭwī “folded”), or “not sealed” (opposite, mak̲h̲tūm ) hence it comes to mean a certificate, an edict, a diploma of appointment, and particularly, a patent granting an appanage (pl. manās̲h̲īr ). In Egypt in the early Arab period, mans̲h̲ūr seems to be a name for the passes which the government compelled the fellāḥīn to have in order to check the flight of colonists from the land, which threatened to become overwhelming ( d̲j̲āliya ). In any case, in the ¶ Führer durch die Ausstellung ( Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer …

(a), cutting off. The Arabie verb ḳaṭaʿa has been very widely used in a variety of literal and metaphorical senses; this diversity is often of interest for both religious and cultural history. The infinitive ḳaṭʿ does not occur in the Ḳurʾān, but the finite verb occurs both in the literal and in a rather metaphorical sense: Sūra V, 42 (38): “Cut off the hands of the thief and the female thief”—the well-known prescription which has passed into fiḳh and is sometimes briefly designated as ḳaṭʿ al-liṣṣ ; Sūra VIII, 7: “and [Allah] may cut off the root of the Infidels”, i.e., extirpate them. Sūra I…

, the common Turkish pronunciation of Persian Dulband , a sash or wrapper for the head, thence turban, the typical form of traditional headdress in the eastern Islamic lands, the Iranian world, and the Muslim and Sikh parts of the Indian subcontinent. The turban of English, French and German, the turbante of Spanish and Italian, etc., come via forms like tulband , tulbant ; in French and Italian the word is attested from the later 15th century, and in English from the mid-16th century. See Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson . A glossary of Anglo-Indian words and phrases 2, London 1903, 943-4. It s…

(a.), witness, martyr (pl. s̲h̲uhadāʾ) is often used in the Ḳurʾān (as is s̲h̲āhid [q. v.], plur. s̲h̲uhūd, from which it is not definitely distinguished) in the primary meaning of witness. The following examples are typical of the various contexts in which it occurs: Sūra, ii. 127: “Or were ye eye-witnesses when Jacob was at the point of death and he said to his sons”.… Sūra, xxiv. 6: “Those who slander their wives and have no witness except themselves” …Sūra, ii. 137: “And thus we have made you a people in the…

, an Ottoman poet and Ḥurūfī. Of Refīʿī’s life we only have a few hints from himself; the Ottoman biographers and historians do not seem to mention him at all. He himself describes how in his youth he studied many branches of knowledge but did not know what he should believe, and how sometimes he turned to the Sunna, sometimes to philosophy and sometimes to ¶ materialism. He often travelled a great distance to visit a particular scholar but always was disappointed. The poet Nesīmī [q. v.] was the first to teach him the grace of God and the truth, and ordered …

, toll, customs duty, is a loanword in Arabic and goes back to the Aramaic maksā, cf. Hebrew mekes and Assyr. miksu; from it is formed a verb m-k-s I, II, III and makkās, the collector of customs. According to the Arabic tradition preserved in Ibn Sīda even in the Ḏj̲āhilīya there were market-dues called maks so that the word must have entered Arabic very early. It is found in Arabic papyri towards the end of the first century a. h. Becker has dealt with the history of the maks, especially in Egypt, and we follow him here. The old law books use maks in the sense of ʿus̲h̲r, the tenth levied by the mer…

, Ḳulansiya (a.), the name for a cap which was worn by men either under the turban proper or alone on the head. The word, from which verbal forms are derived as denominative verbs, is apparently of foreign origin; while it used to be commonly connected with the Latin calautica, for which, however, the form calantica is difficult to quote — and besides it means a head-cloth for women —, Fraenkel wishes to derive it through the Aramaic (cf. Arabic ḳāliṣ, ḳālis, Dozy, Supplément ii., 395) from κῶνοΣ ( conus). The Arab grammarians and lexicographers have found in the manifold formation …

, a Turkish poet and scholar of the latter half of the eighteenth century. Meḥmed b. Rās̲h̲id b. Meḥmed Efendi Wehbī was born in Marʿas̲h̲ in the province of Aleppo; he belonged to the prominent local family of Sunbulzāde, which had already produced several ¶ muftīs including the grandfather of our poet, Meḥmed, muftī in Marʿas̲h̲ and author of several works including the S̲h̲ērḥ al-As̲h̲bāh al-musammā bi-Tawfīḳi ’llāh, Nūr al-ʿ-Ain and Kitāb al-Tanzīhāt. His father Rās̲h̲id also was a learned man and collaborated in Aleppo with the poet Saiyid Wehbī. As one of the …

, the headdress of males in the Muslim east, consisting of a cap with a length of cloth wound round it. The name turban is found in this form in European languages only (English turban, turband; French turban, tulban; German Turban; Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, turbante; Dutch tulband; Rumanian tulipan; all going back to older forms with o: tol(l)iban, tolipan, tolopan, tourbant, tourban, torbante) and is usually traced to the Persian dulband, from which is also said to be derived the word tulip (cf. Meyer-Lübke, Romanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Heidelberg 1911, p. 682, …

, a Turkish historian. All that we know of his life is gleaned from his works. He was born in 939 (1532) for he tells us that at the accession of Sulṭān Murād III, i. e. in 982 (1574), he was 43. At the early age of eleven he took part in the campaign of 950 (1543) along with his elder brother Perwāne Ag̲h̲a, who at that time was Ḳapud̲j̲i̊ Bas̲h̲i̊ to the Sand̲j̲aḳ Beg of Lepanto, Yaḥyā Pas̲h̲a Og̲h̲lu Aḥmad Beg. When the latter, after the capture of Stuhlweissen. burg, was appointed Sand̲j̲aḳ …

(a.), originally “obliterating, covering”, then, “concealing benefits received” = “ungrateful”; this meaning is found even in the old Arab poetry and in the Ḳurʾān, Sūra xxvi. 18. In the Ḳurʾān the word is used with reference to God: “concealing God’s blessings” = “ungrateful to God”, see Sūra xvi. 57 and xxx. 33: “That they are ungrateful for our gifts”; cf. also Sūra, xvi. 85. The next development — probably under ¶ the influence of the Syriac and Aramaic where the corresponding development took place earlier — is the more general meaning of “infidel” which is f…

(a.), Crown. A Persian loanword in Arabie going back to the Old Persian * tag; cf. Armenian ʿtag, Aramaic taga. From it are formed in Arabic the broken plural tīd̲j̲ān and the corresponding verb t-w-d̲j̲ II “to crown”, V “to be crowned”, and tāʾid̲j̲, “crowned” (Horn, Grundriss der neupersischen Etymologic, Strassburg 1893, p. 81; Siddiqi, Studien über die per she hen Fremdwörter im klassischen Arabisch, Göttingen 1919, p. 74, 84; Fraenkel, Die aramāischen Fremdwörter im Arabischen, Ley den 1886, p. 62). Like the name, the thing itself comes from old Persia. The form o…

, a Turkish poet of Albanian origin of the time of Soliman. A scion of the noble north Albanian family of Dukagin, to which also belonged the Turkish poet Dukagin-zāde Aḥmad Bey, Yaḥyā was taken under the dews̲h̲irme for the Janissaries and brought to Stambul. He himself speaks in his Gend̲j̲īne-i Rāz of his being conscripted in this way, a thing that was only to bring him good and when an old man he still recalls his Albanian origin. In Stambul he was put in the corps of ʿAd̲j̲emi-Og̲h̲lan, in which officers for the Janissaries and Spahis were …